Teaching and learning MFL
Methodologies
Papers & recommended reading |
Editorial reviews | Task for trainees
Eleven pets and 20 ways to express one's opinion: the vocabulary learners of German acquire at English secondary schools
HACKER, M., Language Learning Journal, 36 2, December 2008, pp. 215-226
In a special issue of the Language Learning Journal devoted to the role of the importance of acquiring or learning vocabulary to those studying language, the author investigates the vocabulary of a sample of textbooks of German, and relates the treatment of the issue to education policy, assessment-led curriculum, and current prevalent language teaching methods in secondary schools.
Starting from, and maintaining throughout with apt reference to research, the stance that vocabulary learning and retention is key to those wishing to communicate successfully in the studied language, the author launches an unnerving but carefully justified critique of the way the sampled textbooks reflect what goes on in our classrooms. The vocabulary the courses purport to teach is variously exposed as being of lamentable quantity, of questionable quality in terms of its capacity for re-use in different contexts, insufficiently practised in the context of the secondary timetable pattern, and dictated by the needs of the topic-based approach that was adopted as part of the interpretation of the concept of 'communicative language teaching'.
Whilst the author is very sympathetic to the needs of, and pressures on, schools to conform to the 'league table culture' and to produce examination results in terms of GCSE grades A to C, she mounts a powerful argument against teaching to the test.
The author’s perceptions of teachers' own linguistic competence fare no better: their own language learning experience is seen as a further pollutant in propagating the "vicious circle" of learners with insufficient linguistic competence who then become teachers; this results in a call for a QTS skills-type competence test in languages.
The article constitutes a radical stimulus to languages tutors and trainees to debate how pupils are taught to communicate effectively, how testing may inhibit methodological development, and the potential need for beginning teachers to question the effectiveness of their own language learning experience in arriving at their own way of teaching languages.
Learner strategies and self-efficacy: making the connection
Graham, S. (2007) Language Learning Journal, 35, 1, pp 81-93
This article reports on part of a larger-scale study of strategy training in listening on learners of French aged 16-17. The primary focus of the article is on the fact that they DO employ strategies rather than on the strategy types, and how explicit awareness of strategy use might boost confidence via the consequent gains in attainment.
The study is carefully constructed with 'control' groups to check both on the impact of strategy training, and of explicit pupil awareness of it and its impact. The resulting evidence suggests that training, and being explicitly aware of the form it takes, is beneficial, and the article discusses the reasons for this in depth.
Of particular interest is that self-awareness is raised by the pupils’ keeping of learning journals. This has proved challenging for some pupils, while the more detailed feedback required from teachers is time-consuming. In line with the primary focus of the article, the exemplar feedback also seems couched in language related to motivating pupil effort, rather than precisely how to use or introduce particular strategies at particular points.
The concluding remarks also appropriately point out that strategy choice may not necessarily result from the teacher making a decision as to which of these to teach, but via prior exploration of the constitution of challenge to the pupils; identification of their difficulties by the pupils themselves can lead to better matching of listening strategies to the presented needs. As the author points out, further study by the teacher as to what form these strategies actually take is needed, but the advanced linguistic knowledge that informs such a strategy may be of no use unless the pupil has engaged with the idea of what his or her needs are, and is keen to address these needs.
The article thus makes clear links between effective language teaching methods, motivation , and aspects of learner autonomy and learning styles.
Do near-beginner learners of French have any writing strategies?
Macaro, E. (2007) Language Learning Journal, 35, 1, pp 23-35
Study into language learning methodology in general has tended to be via international research that mainly focuses on ‘advanced’ adults learning English as a foreign language in non-UK, non-compulsory educational contexts. The author, wishing to promote the unique contribution of the UKPOLLS (United Kingdom Project on Language Learner Strategies) to the field, emphasises the desirability of locating language learner strategy research in a more immediate context. As getting classes of mainly monoglot, English-speaking adolescent pupils compulsorily based in UK schools to write near to the beginning of their (usually European) foreign language learning experience, it should be of major concern that the author claims “There is virtually no research on foreign language writing at this level.” Such a study is therefore very timely indeed, as is a call for further research in this area.
One of the interesting and serious implications of this study is that language skills are not ‘stand-alone’ items. To those of our community who have seriously engaged with issues of literacy and language learning, it is to engage with familiar territory to posit that to be ‘grammatical’ is not necessarily to attain native-speaker standards of accuracy. Similarly, to those who appreciate the complexity of the interaction of language and cognitive skills, it will be appropriate that the author finds relationships between reading and writing, and conscious attempts to make the links between the spoken and the written word (GPC), seem to be key in the development of copy- and free-writing. The study reveals that an important factor in the failure of pupils to successfully and consciously identify and apply strategies seems to be L1 interference; this impedes the ability to sub-vocalise the words and phrases, and an over-emphasis on old-fashioned 'grammatical' accuracy slows down the process even further. The detail of the study provides some evidence of the author’s claim that near-beginner learners of French DO have the “potential to use a complex cluster of strategies for formulating and monitoring” their attempts at writing. To exploit this potential, they will need to have confidence in two key areas: making the link between the sound and the written form of the L2, and being ‘inaccurate’ while they learn to monitor for increased accuracy. By implication, current teaching methods do not provide the appropriate training for pupils to gain this confidence.
What do learners’ beliefs about speaking reveal about their awareness of learning strategies? Gallagher-Brett, A. (2007) Language Learning Journal, 35, 1, pp 37-49
This is a small-scale study into learners’ perceptions of the importance, and awareness, of language learning strategy use. The exploration of learners’ beliefs about speaking is conducted in order to reveal information relating to the fostering of more effective learning strategies; classroom speaking of the foreign language is still a major feature in most MFL teachers’ planning, yet has been identified by research as problematic. It is thus a very a relevant area of study, and asking the learners a worthy and appropriately modern way of addressing the issue.
The major research instrument issued to pupils is an deceptively simple questionnaire; whilst being impressively brief and simply expressed, its open questions recognise the complex interaction of social and affective factors with optimum strategy use, and the article’s introduction ably makes the link with the associated corpus of research-based theory in its bid to establish whether learners are indeed aware of relevant social, learning and oral communication strategies.
Of particular interest is the apparently contradictory nature of some of the findings. A central tension lies in the fact that, whilst it would seem desirable that such a group of more able and self-motivated learners should make decisions for themselves relating to the employment of strategies, what pupils do is not necessarily the best way to meet their own objectives. They value speaking practice and revision opportunities, yet acknowledge they do not necessarily make the most of opportunities presented in class, probably owing to social and peer influences. They have a professed desire to sound good and communicate spontaneously, yet in perceiving the social importance of speaking using accurate pronunciation and grammar, maintain a dependence on prompts for speaking - usually the written word - which tends to negate the desired effect.
This study is part of a longer-term project by the author. In the light of the particular social constraints that anxieties prevalent in the social context of the classroom seem to impose on the making of effective choices by pupils, perhaps there is an implicit call for the seeking of further opportunities outside of the classroom for practice and revision. Similarly, the confidence to do without the written word as a prop, and to 'have a go / guess' is low; perhaps then in the making of recommendations for attribution or strategy training anticipated as potentially necessary in the concluding remarks, there might be some experimentation with limiting access to the written word at particular times in the classroom.
Language learner strategy research and modern foreign language teaching and learning, Grenfell, M. (June 2007) Language Learning Journal, 35, 1, pp 09-22
This article considers the role of learner strategies, and the recent contribution and future potential of further research into the topic on behalf of teaching and learning of modern foreign languages in the context of UK schools. It is the introductory article for a specially-themed volume 35 of the Language Learning Journal on the issue of language learner strategies.
The author provides a concise and fascinating review of research into language learner strategies since the 1970s, from which emerged greater awareness of learner needs, and thence the need to improve language-learning methods. The historical background furnishes a clear rationale for the decline of the grammar-translational approach, the rise and subsequent re-evaluation of the communicative language teaching movement, and the integration of learning strategies into pupils’ learning experiences across the curriculum.
Yet the influence of study into language learner strategies is that of international research that mainly focuses on ‘advanced’ adults learning English as a foreign language in non-UK non-compulsory educational contexts. The author, wishing to promote the unique contribution of the UKPOLLS (United Kingdom Project on Language Learner Strategies) to the field, stresses the importance to us of locating language learner strategy research much closer to home. The customary audience for our community is the (mainly) English-speaking and oft monoglot adolescents compulsorily based in UK schools near the beginning of their (usually European) foreign language learning experience; it is in this particular and much more recognisable context that the UKPOLLS research group states its intention of helping us explore which language learning strategies are effective. That the theory should be seen to result from practice environments we recognise as authentic constitutes a very welcome and properly focused approach to the generation of research-based theory.
The concluding remarks point out the potential that strategy research may have for asking good questions about curriculum design and pedagogy and the complex relationships that exist between various aspects of theory and practice; this potential will emerge from the enhanced knowledge we may obtain about our learners’ efficacy.
Taking communication to
task? A critical review of recent trends in language teaching
(pdf document)
Klapper J. (2003) Language Learning Journal, 27, pp 33-42
The article looks into recent research about task-based teaching, as an alternative to the communicative method.
Communicative language teaching is widely used in secondary schools today and after reviewing its shortcomings the author proceeds to introduce task-based instruction.
Communicative language teaching is often based on a lesson sequence used by many modern languages teachers which operates in three parts: Presentation-Practice-Production. This sequence could be replaced by the task-based approach, which allows for more student involvement and drives the focus of the modern languages teaching approach away from a syllabus based on vocabulary (or grammar learning).
The task-based method, just as much as CLT, has strengths and weaknesses.
According to the author a hybrid system may be the answer and by all means
teachers should keep open-minded and know there is not only “one best method”.
Teaching communication strategies
to beginners (pdf document)
Gallagher Brett A. (2001) Language Learning Journal, 24, pp 53-61
In a drive to help learners overcome difficulties in speaking the author carried out an 8-week project aiming to teach communication strategies to a Year 7 class of beginners in German in the autumn term.
The paper sets communication strategies in the context of the National Curriculum and previous studies on the subject, before embarking on describing the project and its findings. It has to be said that communication strategies training is a subject that has been researched very little and this paper provides ideas for good practice and further development.
The findings show that beginners can benefit from communication strategies training. In the study pupils were involved in questionnaires, discussions and drawing up lists of useful phrases. They were able to practise and develop strategies that enabled them to use closers and openers, to seek help and clarification, to help each other, etc.
The paper shows to what extent the project had a positive impact on pupils’
ability to cope with difficulties in speaking, and shows there is scope
for further study in this area.
Grammar in MFL teaching
revisited (pdf document)
Meiring, L. and Norman N. (2001) Language Learning Journal, 23,
pp 58-66
The article reviews the role and status of grammar in modern languages teaching and learning in the light of policies and curriculum development.
Grammar teaching is influenced by many factors such as exam requirements, national strategies, research and fashions in modern languages teaching. This review looks at the changing role of grammar teaching and learning in the last 10 years in particular and re-assesses its compatibility with the communicative approach in second language acquisition.
More practically the authors explore several basic issues in grammar teaching, namely: technical terms, grammar teaching through the use of the target language and which aspects of grammar to select.
The article concludes that the changing perceptions of teachers and latest
curriculum developments signal the “reinstatement of grammar as a fundamental
component of communication in foreign language teaching” through a fresh
approach to grammar teaching.
Semantic primacy and the
communicative approach to foreign language teaching (pdf document)
Rider N. and McCretton E. (1991) Language Learning Journal, 4,
pp 72-74
The article gives a summary of the historical and theoretical backgrounds to the communicative approach in language teaching and learning.
The authors describe how the method has evolved from Chomsky’s LAD (Language Acquisition Device) to what is known today as the communicative approach and which has been widely used in modern languages classes in the last few decades.
The communicative method, based on the theory that L1 and L2 acquisitions are very similar, needs to recreate the L1 experience as far as possible in L2 classes. The authors describe how this is achieved in course materials and in the modern languages classroom.
The article gives a clear outline of the communicative approach in its
historical, theoretical and practical contexts.
