Policy and reform

Primary entitlement

Papers & recommended reading | Editorial reviews | Tasks for trainees

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Scottish pupils’ perceptions of their Spanish learning experience in the last year of primary and the first year in secondary, Gallastegi, L., Tierney, D. Vida Hispánica. (2009).Language Learning Journal, 39, pp. 3-10

The transition between the primary and secondary phases of pupils’ education is of significance across the whole school curriculum; following OfSTED initiated disquiet at the dawn of the new millennium, DCSF has maintained a sharp focus on the post-11 transition, and has sought to “improve transfer between key stages 2 and 3” maintaining that if meaningful progression in learning is to be sustained, “pupils cannot afford to make a slow start or repeat material they have already learned in Key Stage 2.” As the early language learning initiative has gathered pace, and all primary pupils in England are to have an entitlement to learn languages from 2010, several curricular continuity challenges have surfaced, based around the question: should primary schools start teaching the languages that secondary schools will carry on with, or should the primary curriculum offer a ‘languages awareness’ approach?

Whilst advocating varied approaches to the introduction of languages in the primary phase, Aspect 5 (languages) of the 2008 Rose Review of the primary curriculum favours the former approach. The article opening therefore aptly reminds us that Scotland has considerable experience from which to learn in the field, having embarked on a substantial primary languages programme in 1989. The description of the programme aims - to extend the period of development of linguistic competence in the same language, whilst simultaneously increasing motivation and intercultural awareness – bear a close resemblance to the key recommendations of the Rose review. Curricular continuity having been first highlighted by the seminal work of Burstall in the 70s, this article focuses on a key area: the perception of the pupils themselves of progression between their primary and secondary experience of learning Spanish. The survey follows on from similar ones conducted with pupils learning French and German in the Scottish system, so useful comparisons with attitudes towards the three most taught languages may eventually be made.

The issue of continuity features large in the conclusions: significantly, some pupils highlighted repetition of some key stage 2 learning experiences as a negative factor. There were, though, encouraging and positive findings: a large number of pupils found learning Spanish across the key stage 2 to 3 transition without significant difficulty, and a high percentage were motivated to continue their studies beyond key stage 3.

Key questions pertaining to the choice of taught language remain, in the authors’ view. They advocate exploration of this avenue via further research into pupil perceptions of how easy some languages are to learn, and how useful or attractive they appear. Listening to learners’ views remains properly high on their research agenda.

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Thinking through languages: a multilingual approach to primary school languages (pdf document)
Jones, N., Barnes, A., Hunt, M. (2005) Language Learning Journal, 32, pp 63-67

This article presents a project undertaken as part of the Primary Pathfinder pilot scheme, prior to publication of the Key Stage 2 Framework. It reminds us that past research has revealed that starting study early in one particular foreign language does not provide conclusive evidence of future higher attainment for pupils, but that significant studies in Europe have suggested that knowledge about the structure and diversity of languages can develop more positive, tolerant attitudes to language learning and other cultures, and thus lead to enhanced aptitude in learners. This argument has been, and still is, championed by Hawkins, Downes and other leading figures in the language teaching community; its significance is reflected in the structure and emphasis of the Key Stage 2 Framework itself.

In order to be consistent to these values, the Coventry LEA team has devised a programme of study to engage their young learners with a variety of languages. The activities described and analysed constitute an initial set of language-learning strategies based on the ability to identify, compare, analyse and decode language. The evidence presented suggests teachers and learners enjoyed, and benefited from, the investigative approach which constituted an apt level of challenge.

The result of the project has affected the programme content significantly; the Y3/4 Coventry programme continues to use this multilingual approach.

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Why reading Grimm needn’t be grim reading: story-telling at key stage 1 and key stage 2 (pdf document)
Kent, H. (2004) Deutsch: Lehren und Lernen, 29, pp 14-20

This paper is a teacher’s account of the use of traditional stories in the primary MFL classroom. The author makes the case for story-telling from a literacy point of view, and a compelling argument is that of immediately studying language in a meaningful and realistic context that appeals to young learners emotionally. By careful choice of illustrated stories with which either the learners are already familiar in their native tongue, or which follow repetitive and cumulative narrative patterns, or present clear opportunities for acting out via mime, the challenge of the unfamiliar target language is reduced, and the stories are rendered accessible. However, activity sequencing changes to the language teaching methodology employed in native-tongue literacy classes are recommended, in order to allow pupils to become familiar with the meaning and form of a significant quantity of language items BEFORE the story is told. The article is replete with detailed notes on the conduct of supporting language activities. The section on the integration of the MFL classes into cross-curricular schemes of work and study themes is also a useful model for primary teachers currently engaging with the introduction of MFL into the timetable.

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Where are we going with primary foreign languages? (pdf document)
Tierney, D., Gallastegi, L. (2005) Language Learning Journal, 31, pp 47-54

This paper maps the progress of two initiatives, ELL (Early Language Learning) in England and MLPS (Modern Languages in Primary School) in Scotland, and ultimately calls for concerted debate, and more determined fine-tuning of national strategy, in order to justify significant levels of funding in the area, and in order to avoid another abandonment of the expansion of early language learning - a fate which befell the famous and significant 1974 project.

The article effectively demonstrates that while some benefits of having MFL in the primary school curriculum are measurable, that fundamental questions which were raised by Burstall’s 1974 project still have not been adequately addressed. The issues still requiring decisive intervention include: clarification of aims, particularly those related to the perceived dichotomy between fluency and accuracy; methodologies and methods, with particular reference to MFL’s place in the whole-school curriculum and how other subjects are studied; pre- and in-service teacher training; matching of age-related capacities to language skills and learning aptitudes; liaison between primary and secondary institutions; the status and nature of ‘grammar’ or language systems; and which languages should be taught.

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Young learners of modern foreign languages and their transition to the secondary phase: a lost opportunity? (pdf document)
Bolster, A., Balandier-Brown, C., Rea-Dickins, P. (2004) Language Learning Journal, 30, pp 35-41

The paper starts by providing a useful and brief history of the stimuli, and administrative agencies, for the promotion of MFL teaching in the primary sector, also known as the ELL (Early language Learning) initiative.

The authors’ opening statement is that effective and coherent transition between key stages 2 and 3 relies on simultaneously addressing not only liaison between primary and secondary schools to address “the divide between primary and secondary cultures”, but also a number of key and complex questions including: Why learn foreign languages? Who should teach them? How should they be taught? Which languages? How should pupils be assessed?

The research seeks to address the issue by establishing three main research questions to be pursued in case study schools. These questions focus on the views of staff involved in transition arrangements, and of children embarked on their key stage 3 MFL study.

While there are some very positive findings in terms of the longer-term benefits to ELL pupils, disappointingly the overall conclusions do not differ radically from the 1974 Nuffield project (Clare Burstall et al): the early start in MFL does not necessarily lead to long-term advantage, owing to a lack of continuity and differentiated provision in the secondary phase. The paper ends by suggesting the means to address the issue are available to both sectors, but questions whether either can or will pursue these.

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Modern languages in the primary school in Spain and Scotland (pdf document)
Tierney, D., Alonso-Nieto, L. (2001) Vida Hispánica, 23, pp 9-12

The article reports the outcomes of study visits to Spain to look at early language learning and compares the approaches of Spain and Scotland in this domain.

In 1989 a national pilot project was started in Scotland aiming to introduce the teaching of a modern language in all primary schools.

The authors compare the Scottish and the Spanish schemes. Their study concentrates on various aspects of the schemes: target age groups, chosen modern languages and type of training provided for the teachers. It also looks into the intended outcomes: increased language awareness, linguistic competence or cultural awareness.

The article will be of interest to anybody involved in early language teaching and learning as it gives a good insight into different ways of introducing a modern language in the primary sector.

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Modern Foreign Languages at primary school: a three-pronged approach? (pdf document)
Martin, C. (2000) Language Learning Journal, 22, pp 5-10

This article considers different approaches to school-based primary MFL programmes for England in the light of other European-based initiatives and the need emphasised by the Nuffield Languages Inquiry of 2000 to make progress in this area. Links between primary and secondary staff and programmes are constantly to the fore, and the proposed model has taken into account current concerns with the challenge of making the key stages 2 and 3 MFL curricula meaningfully distinct, and transition less problematic.

It argues the underlying rationale for, and suggests, a curriculum with three strands: a foreign language element which is nearer the sensitisation end of the spectrum in that it makes explicit links with other languages, an enhanced knowledge-about-language component closely linked to the literacy programme, and a strengthened intercultural dimension which forges early links with target language peoples and culture and the world citizenship agenda. It also proposes a tripartite staffing model, with primary class teachers supported by language specialists, Foreign language assistants (FLAs) and other native speakers working together.

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Teaching French in primary schools: a preparation for future learning (pdf document)
Hallam, C., Neilsen, B. (2000) Francophonie, 22, pp 24-27

This article by authors from La Jolie Ronde gives pointers as to how to teach French to primary schools pupils.

Being able to learn a modern language will soon become an entitlement for every pupil in primary schools (National Language Strategy). This article, though referring to French, will be of interest to any teacher involved in primary language teaching.

The authors argue that early language teaching should not be about the mere acquisition of new vocabulary but a ‘firm grounding for future learning’. They give some advice on how to structure a modern language lesson, some teaching and learning tips and suggestions of activities suitable for different age groups.

Early language learning needs to be enjoyable and build up the pupils’ confidence so that they enter secondary education with a positive attitude towards the study of modern languages.

 

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Modern Foreign Languages 5-11: A Guide for Teachers Jane Jones, Simon Coffey (2006) David Fulton Publishers Ltd

This review was accessed at http://escalate.ac.uk/3971

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Recent research on age, second language acquisition and early foreign language learning Marianne Nikolov and Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic (2006) Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, pp 234-260

The aim of this chapter is to provide a critical overview of the issues and research conducted since the most recent state-of-the-art article published in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics by David Singleton (2001). First, we summarize what research has said about the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in cognitive science and neurobiology, then we review recent findings of age-related studies since 2000 focusing on what late beginners and adults can achieve, and how early and later beginners compare in bilingual programs. The second part of the presentation explores language policy and classroom implications of the CPH for foreign language teaching. As English has become the lingua franca, early programs have mushroomed all over the world. However, besides overwhelming enthusiasm, more recently critical voices can also be heard. On the one hand, early exposure is often seen as a key to success and a solution to all problems in language education; on the other hand, it may be perceived as a threat to first language development and identity. Finally, we explore areas for further research.

Note: This abstract was taken from Cambridge journals

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Primary modern foreign languages: an overview of recent research, key issues and challenges for educational policy and practice Marilyn Hunt, Ann Barnes, Bob Powell, Geoff Lindsay and Daniel Muijs (2005) Research Papers in Education, 20 (4), pp 371-390

This is an important report at a key moment in languages teaching history as another attempt is made to introduce early languages learning (ELL). The article constitutes a comprehensive and clearly focused description and analysis of the current position with regard to primary modern foreign languages (PMFL) provision in the English system. In doing so, it underlines key areas for development, and makes the case for a sound research base for such development.

The article proposes that the available research base can do no more than urge caution with regard to the ‘early start’; more than thirty years on from the significant initiative of the 1970s written up by Burstall et al, we can draw no more optimistic conclusions: ELL still only has the potential to raise MFL achievement past the primary phase “provided issues of continuity and progression are properly addressed.” Data on teacher expertise, initial training and professional development, on the management of transition between key stages 2 and 3, on enormously varied models of PMFL provision and emphasis, draw a picture of inconsistency and incoherence.

The challenges are complex: learner motivation is given appropriate prominence in the paper, and the lack of research into learner opinions and attitudes lamented; there is an implicit call for consensus, supported by research, on a curricular model which emphasises the need for balance between linguistic, meta-linguistic, and intercultural awareness; there is a plea to heed the lessons of international research which has unearthed significant findings that FL study may not be conducive to encouraging learning activity which has enough cognitive challenge; the unique position of English culturally and commercially as an international lingua franca is seen not have been attributed sufficient significance when considering how and why a foreign language is to be taught to pupils in our ‘home’ system.

Two further important issues stand out from the many addressed, again requiring further research: that of ensuring teacher expertise in language and cultural knowledge, and regularly ‘maintained’ by CPD, is of a consistent level within the teaching cohort; and that of researching and implementing a meaningful assessment system which demonstrates a realistic grasp of the complexities of notions of progression in language learning.

A January 2008 OfSTED report to evaluate the quality of ITT preparing trainees to implement the National Languages Strategy by 2009/10 effectively re-iterates many of the concerns raised by this review of the research carried out three years previously. Although the report is rightly positively enthralled by the “infectious enthusiasm” and “evangelical determination” of the primary languages trainees in general, many key issues remain requiring address as we approach the 2010 ‘deadline’: transition between key stages 2 and 3 and how secondaries take on board prior language learning, the challenge of trainees stepping straight into the role of subject leader; trainees’ perceived lack of grasp of the bigger curricular picture and how pupils progress in and beyond key stage 2; the linking of the notion of progression to formalised assessment; the making of cross-curricular links with language and literacy and “uneven” access to subject expertise and language enhancement for trainees. Whilst the report is to be praised for its willingness to seek out and analyse trainees’ views, it remains to be seen whether a vigorous response to support a clear “passion” for language learning on behalf of schools, trainees and providers will keep the ELL initiative alive.

The door for rigorous inquiry has been opened; will researchers take up the invitation to step inside and explore PMFL to protect its future?

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Language Acquisition: The Age factor (book) David Singleton (Trinity College Dublin), Lisa Ryan, Multilingual Matters, 2004

This book examines the evidence relative to the idea that there is an age factor in first and second language acquisition, evidence that has sources ranging from studies of feral children to evaluations of language programmes in primary schools. It goes on to explore the various explanations that have been advanced to account for such evidence. Finally, it looks at the educational ramifications of the age question, with particular regard to formal second language teaching in the early school years and in 'third age' contexts.

Note: This summary was taken from Multilingual Matters.

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Addressing the Age factor: Some implications for languages policy, Guide for the development of Language Education Policies in Europe. From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education, Richard Johnstone, University of Stirling for the Language Policy Division, Directorate of School, Out-of-School and Higher Education DGIV, Council of Europe, Strasbourg (2002)

This is a major and key article - subtitled Guide for the development of Language Education Policies in Europe : From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education written by Richard Johnstone for the Directorate of Council of Europe, to inform policy development on language educaiton in Europe. As Beacco and l Byram state, the Guide's 'purpose is to demonstrate the complexity of the questions involved in language teaching, often dealt with in a simplistic manner. It aims to describe the processes and conceptual tools needed for the analysis of educational contexts with respect to languages and for the organisation of language learning and teaching according to the principles of the Council of Europe'. Published in 2002, its research review, analysis and recommendations are highly pertinent in today's educational and policy context.

The first part of the article gives a nuanced assessment of all the significant research reviews on 'the critical period hypothesis' (CPH), of which there are many. The CPH is the view, well supported in research evidence, that there exists a 'window' for learning the first language (L1) which 'closes' around adolescence. Johnstone's evidence shows that popular beliefs about the benefits of early learning of a foreign language (the FL1) have frequently over simplified the research findings about CPH in L1 and misapplied them to the context of learning the FL1. Learning the FL is not like learning one's first language.

The article is informative on the context and history of the research which has influenced policy decisions on when the FL should be introduced, covering the history of the CPH hypothesis in 1950's brain research and the swing away from CPH during the 1980s, incidentally following a number of negative evaluations of early language learning at school.

Johnstone charts the intricacies of varying claims made by researchers and writers on the CPH and alerts the reader to common fallacies arising from interpretations of research claims. The danger of distorting and exaggerating the benefits of early FL learning is highlighted in a discussion of two main claims by proponents of the advantages of early FL teaching. The first claim is that late starters will never achieve a native-like accent and the second that morphological and syntax competence will not achievable. Reviewing the substantial research base Johnstone shows that both these claims can be countered in evidence.

So the CPH is not a sound basis in itself for promoting early FL teaching. The age at which the FL is started is not the only factor for learning but merely one of a cluster of contextual and developmental factors that may make acquisition more difficult for mature learners. Johnstone is a cautious advocate of early FL learning, Citing Singleton that 'concerning the hypothesis that those who begin learning a second language in childhood in the long run generally achieve a higher level of proficiency than those who begin later in life, one can say that there is some good supportive evidence and that there is no actual counter-evidence' (Singleton D., 1989, Language acquisition: the age factor. Clevedon, UK:Multilingual Matters). So early FL learning is to be cautiously advocated, without unwarranted claims for its long term and lasting effects.

Concluding the first part of the paper Johnstone rightly points out that each age brings its own advantages and disadvantages to FL learning. The second part of the paper fruitfully considers further the key conditions for successful language learning in younger and older learners and builds on Stern's idea that different ages might bring different advantages and disadvantages to language learners. (Stern H. H., 1976, Optimum age: myth or reality? Canadian Modern Language Review, 32).

The second part of the paper is prefaced with the cautionary thought that there is no such thing as 'the' younger learner or 'the' older learner, 'since there are many stages in the life-long process between 'young' and 'old', at any of which there is considerable variation among individuals'. Nonetheless, Johnstone offers 'a few thoughts about the general characteristics of learners who are towards the younger end and of others who are towards the older end of the age spectrum', through a brief discussion of relevant, subtantial research. Johnstone concludes that given a suitable context and support, learners of any age can benefit greatly from their attempts to learn an additional language. His authorative claim is convincing that many unsubtantiated myths abound on early language learning, together with a serious lack of research-based knowledge about 'third age' language learning.

From the article's earlier consideration of the CPH, which is based on biological, developmental factors, Johnstone further discusses some of the contextual factors which may play a major role in successful FL learning, such as the dominance of English as a foreign language; whether native-speakers of English perceive needs for other languages; the threat to 'minority' heritage and community languages groups and provision factors .

The article concludes with some welcome recommendations to policy makers across Europe including:

· the elaboration of a broad national consensus, backed up by political will, on languages education in society which incorporates not only an early start but also lifelong language learning;
· an adequate supply of well-trained teachers at all levels of education and training;
· adequate continuing professional development for teachers in post;
· the establishment of collaborative, cross-sectional processes and structures which will give strong support to continuity of language learning within and across the different sectors of education (e.g. primary, secondary, further, higher, vocational);
· appropriate materials and approaches for teaching an ever-widening age-range;
· adequate systems of monitoring and evaluation, in order to make the adjustments to policy that will inevitably be required as it is implemented over time;
· a degree of languages diversification to prepare students for participation in the larger multilingual society;
· incorporation of the best insights from research into such programmes, preferably with the active participation of practitioners in such research.

Readers wishing to pursue some of these themes further may find the following bibliography useful:

http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/florencia/bib/age.htm

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Primary French in the balance (book), Burstall, C. (et al.), (1974) NFER

This is deemed the first MAJOR UK study set up to consider the relative effects of early MFL learning, by starting the learning of French in primary, as opposed to secondary, school. French was taught at primary school to around 17,000 pupils, and evaluation aimed to establish whether a substantial gain in competence had been achieved by dint of the earlier commencement of MFL study.
The findings seemed to demonstrate that there were no significant longer-term benefits, except sometimes in matters of pronunciation, in comparison with those who had not started learning until the age of eleven. However, the study team’s qualifying observations implied that a lack of continuity and differentiated provision in the secondary phase might be a significant factor amongst others, (Martin, C. (2001) QCA) and further investigation seemed appropriate. Amongst those reading this study who wonder why it has in fact taken so long to resurrect the cause of ELL, there may be some who concur with Wragg’s contemporary view (British Educational Research Journal vol 8, No 1 (1982), p4) that some elements of the political hierarchy seek to discourage progress and potentially expensive or radical initiatives in education, and make selective claims in relation to research findings: “... those who were hostile seized the critical parts to attack or even discontinue French in the primary schools.”

 

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Last updated Thursday, January 14, 2010 12:45 PM

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